NeuroNames

• Provides location information for more than 6500 neuroanatomical terms.
• Defines the brain in terms of about 550 primary structures to which all other structures, names, and synonyms are related.
• Provides standard English and Latin names for more than 850 unique structures and substructures of the human brain.
• Shows hierarchical relations of each structure to its superstructures and substructures
• Provides a unique abbreviation for each structure that is suitable for labeling illustrations, graphs and tables.
• Defines more than 870 other neuroanatomical entities (ancillary structures) in terms of structures in the Hierarchy. The structure you name may not be part of the Brain Hierarchy. For example, it may represent a different way of subdividing the brain or it may exist only at the embryonic stage of brain development.
• Shows relations of about 4000 synonyms to the standard names and structures they represent.
• Links to illustrations of more than 500 structures in the macaque and human brain.
• Indicates species similarities and differences in structure of the human brain and the nonhuman primate, macaque brain; provides the names of structures in the rodent brain regarded as morphologically homologous to the primate structures. A structure that definitely exists only in the human brain is indicated by [H] following its name; a structure only in the monkey is indicated by [M]. Most structures without such designation exist in both.
• Is based on Nomina Anatomica with citation of more than 80 supplementary sources.

Index

• The Hierarchy
• Definitions and Conventions
• Synonyms and Homonyms
• Ancillary Terms
• Sources
• NeuroNames Statistics
• History

The Hierarchy

The NeuroNames Hierarchy was developed to provide an indexing structure useful in computerized knowledge bases of brain structure and function. It represents a systematic, evolving attempt to codify human and macaque brain anatomy by a standard, ordered nomenclature for structures that are defined by gross morphology or cross-sectional histology. It encompasses the classical neuroanatomical nomenclature, i.e., the naming system that is based on stains which distinguish gray matter from white matter in the brain.

The hierarchical organization of the core vocabulary of NeuroNames is for the most part consistent with the Nomina Anatomica (Nomina-83) as supplemented by two texts Human Neuroanatomy (Carpenter-83, Parent-96) and The Human Nervous System (Paxinos-90). Two basic principles guiding development of the Hierarchy have been: 1) to construct an exhaustive, nested set of mutually exclusive VOLUMETRIC STRUCTURES that represents the entire brain at each level of the Hierarchy and, 2) to list all SUPERFICIAL FEATURES with the smallest volumetric structures that encompass them. In navigating the Hierarchy you will find that the volumetric substructures and superficial features are segregated so that you can tell one from the other.

In listings of the Hierarchy, TERMS IN UPPER CASE represent composite structures; TERMS IN LOWER CASE represent primary structures. Structures found reported in the HUMAN ONLY are indicated by (H); structures found reported in MACAQUE ONLY, by (M).

Definitions and Conventions

STRUCTURE is a very general term that refers to the brain or any subdivision thereof as identified grossly or histologically by the Nissl-stain/myelin-stain dichotomy. A structure may occupy volume or it may be a superficial feature; it may be primary or a composite of other structures; relative to other structures, it may be a substructure or superstructure within the Hierarchy. NeuroNames also includes many neuroanatomical terms that refer to structures not in the hierarchy. These we refer to as ancillary terms (see below).

A SUBSTRUCTURE is a member of an exhaustive set of mutually exclusive structures that comprise a named superstructure; it may be either a PRIMARY STRUCTURE, i.e., a structure that is not further divided in the Hierarchy, or it may itself be a lower-order superstructure within the Hierarchy. The occipital lobe, for example, is a substructure of the cerebral cortex, but it is the superstructure of the occipital gyri. A SUPERSTRUCTURE or COMPOSITE STRUCTURE is a structure composed of two or more substructures.

A SUPERFICIAL FEATURE is a part of a structure that adheres to its boundaries but that is not a member of its set of volumetric substructures. Two kinds of superficial feature are distinguished: surface features and appendages. A SURFACE FEATURE is a feature without volume; e.g., the inferior olive is a surface feature of the medulla; it is the protruding surface that defines the outer boundary of several volumetric substructures that go by different names. An APPENDAGE is a volumetric attachment to a structure, e.g., the vestibulocochlear nerve, which is an appendage of the metencephalon, but not part of the metencephalon.

An ANCILLARY STRUCTURE is a subdivision of the brain, the definition of which is based on criteria other than the gray-white dichotomy or whose boundaries are not coincident with the boundaries of any of the minimum set of structures that define the Hierarchy. Clicking the Show Relation to Hierarchy icon for an ancillary term takes one to a definition worded in terms of standard English names of structures in the Hierarchy.

Synonyms and Homonyms

Each structure in the NeuroNames Hierarchy is referenced by an ENGLISH STANDARD TERM, by a LATIN STANDARD TERM and by a unique ABBREVIATION for use in illustrations and tables.

If multiple English names are commonly used for a given structure, selection of the term to be used as its standard English name has involved weighing several principles. Briefly, they are: avoid eponyms; avoid Latin vowel combinations that are uncommon in English; avoid terms commonly used for more than one structure; strive for consistency with the names of other substructures of the same superstructure; and give preference to short names over long names. With a few exceptions necessary to produce completely parallel hierarchies in English and Latin, we have resisted the urge to create new, "more logical" names for structures.

A given structure can have any number of SYNONYMS, which are listed below the English and Latin standard terms. The first synonym is the English standard name. The second synonym is the Latin standard name. Synonyms can be in English or Latin and appear as spelled in the source.

Listing of more than one SPECIES with a given term indicates that the term has been used for morphologically homologous structures in those species. The NeuroNames Hierarchy is based on morphologic homology with the combination of substructures included in a given superstructure based on proximity. These criteria underlie the classical neuroanatomical classification of brain structures and do not necessarily imply homology based on other criteria, such as connectivity, function or ontogeny.

Ancillary Terms

The ancillary terms are neuroanatomical terms (or terms which sound neuroanatomical) that refer to structures that do not coincide with structures in the Hierarchy. While they represent legitimate neuroanatomical entities, they are not necessary elements of the minimal and exhaustive set of mutually exclusive structures required to describe the primate brain. Thus, they are described separately from the Hierarchy.

Ancillary terms fall into several major categories. Almost half represent alternate ways of subdividing the brain. Many others sound as though they might be in the brain, but refer to structures outside the brain, e.g., structures in the spinal cord. Another group consists of terms that refer to fiber pathways that are not readily distinguishable in myelin-stained sections. Other ancillary terms are based on cytoarchitectural, myeloarchitectural, embryological, or functional characteristics, or are based on connectivity.

The ancillary terms have been defined as accurately as possible using the standard English names of structures in the NeuroNames Hierarchy. Click on the name of any structure in the definition to view more information about it.

Sources

Sources of Names of Structures in the NeuroNames Hierarchy

We have attempted to list at least one authoritative source for each term in each species (human, nonhuman primate, or rodent). Most of the sources listed represent the first publication in which we encountered the term, not the first where it was used. Click the source name to see the reference and an abstract or description of the publication in which the synonym was identified.

For standard English terms as applied to the human brain, the most commonly cited sources are Carpenter-83, Crosby-62, Paxinos-90, and Roberts-70. For the nonhuman primate brain the primary sources are Walker-40, Bonin-47, Krieg-75, and Szabo-84. For the rodent brain, the sources of standard English terms, as cited in Bowden-97, are Paxinos-86 and Swanson-92.

The source of most of the abbreviations, which are based on the standard English terms, is Paxinos-86. The abbreviations for structures not reported in that source were generated according to the principles established there.

For standard Latin terms as applied to the human brain, the most commonly cited sources are Nomina-83, Riley-43 and Stephan-75. For the nonhuman primate brain they are Oertel-69, Olszewski-52, and Shantha-68.

NeuroNames is given as the source of a term if a name had to be generated in order to have both a standard English name and a standard Latin name in the Hierarchy and no published source for such a term was found. In most cases, such terms are English translations of commonly used Latin names. NeuroNames is also given as the source of the Latin translation of English terms for which no published Latin equivalent was found.

Sources of Synonyms and Ancillary Terms from Other Nomenclatures

The several thousand terms in NeuroNames were drawn from more than 70 other publications. Those listed below include systematic nomenclatures of particular parts of the brain which we have attempted to relate as comprehensively and accurately as possible to the NeuroNames Hierarchy. Many terms from these sources are identical to the standard English or Latin terms for structures in the Hierarchy. Others are synonyms of the standard names. Still others represent alternate ways of subdividing the brain and are described in terms of the standard English names of structures in the Hierarchy.

NeuroNames Statistics

The NeuroNames nomenclature includes a total of about 6500 terms (See table below). It allows a complete description of the primate brain in terms of about 860 structures (approximately 550 primary volumetric structures, 120 superstructures and 190 superficial structures). Using NeuroNames, any point in the brain can be located unambiguously to a single primary structure. Thus, mastery of the names (in English or Latin), definitions and relationships among about 860 structures should provide one with a working knowledge of the basic neuroanatomy of the primate brain. Since each of the structures in the Hierarchy has a standard English name and a standard Latin name, that portion of the nomenclature accounts for 1726 of the total terms.

The remaining terms represent ancillary structures or are synonyms. With 872 ancillary structures, synonyms account for almost two-thirds of the total neuroanatomical vocabulary (almost 4000 terms).

Structures (total 1735) Hierarchy Structures - 863 Primary Volumetric Structures - 548 Superstructures - 123 Superficial Structures - 192 Ancillary Structures - 872 Terms (total 6549) Standard English and Latin Terms in the Hierarchy - 1726 Standard Ancillary Terms - 872 Synonyms - 3951

History